OIBAI

The research behind OIBAI

Why paraeducators. Why now.

Special education paraprofessionals are the school staff who work closest to students with the greatest needs. In the 2022–23 school year, U.S. schools employed 564,617 full-time-equivalent special education paraprofessionals, against 481,312 full-time-equivalent special education teachers. OSEP Fast FactsThe field uses many titles for the role: paraprofessional, instructional aide, teacher’s aide, one-on-one aide, classroom assistant, or simply “para.” Douglas et al., 2019 Massafra et al., 2020 This page uses paraeducator throughout.

Across those labels, paraeducators serve as the primary point of contact for students with the most complex educational needs in U.S. schools, yet they enter the work with little preparation for its demands. Walker et al., 2020 Wiggs et al., 2021

The preparation gap

Eligibility requirements are minimal. For paraprofessionals working in Title I programs, federal policy asks for two years of college, an associate’s degree, or a passing score on a basic competency test in reading, writing, and math, and no prior experience with education or disability is required to begin. Damiani et al., 2023 Massafra et al., 2020 Yet from day one, paraeducators deliver small-group instruction, implement behavior support plans, collect progress data, adapt materials, and make real-time instructional decisions. Sobeck & Robertson, 2025

564,617

special education paraprofessionals (FTE) work in U.S. schools, against 481,312 special education teachers.

OSEP Fast Facts

Nearly 1 in 2

of 300+ paraeducators surveyed had received only on-the-job training.

Carter et al., 2009

23 of 50 states

cite IDEA requirements for paraeducators working with students with disabilities.

Massafra et al., 2020

13 states + D.C.

provide no official guidance on paraeducator allocation or training at all.

Massafra et al., 2020McDermott et al., 2024

Training quality therefore depends on geography rather than on student need or professional standards. The result is a structural paradox: students with the most complex needs receive their primary support from the least prepared staff. It is a pattern that reflects a broader tension in inclusive education, where policy commitments to access outpace the infrastructure required to support them. Waitoller & Artiles, 2013

Training works. And it has a limit.

Fidelity is not the same as student growth.

Experimental studies show that with structured, multi-component support (written instruction, modeling, rehearsal, and feedback) paraeducators implement evidence-based practices with high fidelity. Brock et al., 2021 Walker et al., 2020 Paraeducators are capable of sophisticated instructional practice when preparation matches the job.

Paraeducators reaching the fidelity criterion13 of 13
Student cases showing clear progress after high-fidelity training8 of 26

In one tiered training study, all 13 paraeducators reached the fidelity criterion: 9 after group training and 4 more after individual coaching. Those gains did not consistently translate into student learning. Only 8 of 26 student cases showed clear progress on the targeted skills. Brock et al., 2021 Doing a practice correctly and a student actually improving are two different things. The training reliably produced the first. On its own, it did not produce the second.

The independence tension

“Helping or hovering?” Sustained paraeducator proximity can interfere with a student’s access to instruction, peer interaction, and independence.

That is the idea behind OIBAI. OIBAI gives you a grounded answer when you need one, so the support you give builds that independence instead of getting in its way.

Answers when the question happens

Training arrives on scheduled days. The questions arrive in the middle of a lesson, in a hallway, during a transition. We built OIBAI for the second case: one question, one answer, the source named and explained.

Where the answers come from

OIBAI draws on peer-reviewed research in special and inclusive education and on the practice resources schools already rely on: the IRIS Center, the What Works Clearinghouse, and the Center on PBIS. Whatever an answer used, the answer names it.

References

  1. Brock, M. E., & Anderson, E. J. (2021). Training paraprofessionals who work with students with intellectual and developmental disabilities: What does the research say? Psychology in the Schools, 58(4), 702–722. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22386Free to read
  2. Brock, M. E., Barczak, M. A., Anderson, E. J., & Bordner-Williams, N. M. (2021). Efficacy of tiered training on paraeducator implementation of systematic instructional practices for students with severe disabilities. Exceptional Children, 87(2), 217–235. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402920947641
  3. Carter, E. W., O’Rourke, L., Sisco, L. G., & Pelsue, D. (2009). Knowledge, responsibilities, and training needs of paraprofessionals in elementary and secondary schools. Remedial and Special Education, 30(6), 344–359. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932508324399
  4. Center on PBIS. (2025). Supporting and Responding to Students’ Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Needs: Evidence-Based Practices for Educators (Version 2). Center on PBIS, University of Oregon. https://www.pbis.org/resource/supporting-and-responding-to-behavior-evidence-based-classroom-strategies-for-teachers
  5. Damiani, M., Woodfield, C., Elder, B., & Freedman, J. (2023). Professional development for paraprofessionals on inclusive practices using Disability Studies in Education. Journal of Special Education Preparation, 3(3), 6–27. https://doi.org/10.33043/JOSEP.3.3.6-27
  6. Douglas, S. N., Uitto, D. J., Reinfelds, C. L., & D’Agostino, S. (2019). A systematic review of paraprofessional training materials. The Journal of Special Education, 52(4), 195–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466918771707
  7. Giangreco, M. F., Broer, S. M., & Suter, J. C. (2011). Guidelines for selecting alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals: Field-testing in inclusion-oriented schools. Remedial and Special Education, 32(1), 22–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932509355951
  8. Giangreco, M. F., Edelman, S. W., Luiselli, T. E., & MacFarland, S. Z. C. (1997). Helping or hovering? Effects of instructional assistant proximity on students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 64(1), 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440299706400101
  9. Massafra, A., Gershwin, T., & Gosselin, K. (2020). Policy, preparation, and practice… Oh my! Current policy regarding the paraprofessional role and preparation for working with students with disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 31(3), 164–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207320920004
  10. McDermott, L., Cruz, R. A., & Feng, Z. (2024). A state-by-state document analysis of official guidance on paraprofessional allocation. The Journal of Special Education, 57(4), 195–204. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224669231164392
  11. Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education. OSEP Fast Facts: Special education personnel serving children with disabilities under IDEA Part B. School year 2022–23, EDFacts IDEA Part B Personnel Collection.Free to read
  12. Sobeck, E. E., & Robertson, R. (2025). Tips for improving paraeducator implementation of behavior intervention plans. Teaching Exceptional Children, 57(4), 266–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/00400599241231212
  13. Waitoller, F. R., & Artiles, A. J. (2013). A decade of professional development research for inclusive education: A critical review and notes for a research program. Review of Educational Research, 83(3), 319–356. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654313483905
  14. Walker, V. L., Douglas, K. H., & Brewer, C. (2020). Teacher-delivered training to promote paraprofessional implementation of systematic instruction. Teacher Education and Special Education, 43(3), 257–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406419869029
  15. Wiggs, N. B., Reddy, L. A., Bronstein, B., Glover, T. A., Dudek, C. M., & Alperin, A. (2021). A mixed-method study of paraprofessional roles, professional development, and needs for training in elementary schools. Psychology in the Schools, 58(11), 2238–2254. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22589 Free full text

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Written by a graduate researcher in special education. Last reviewed July 2026.